The two types of standard transistors are PNP and NPN which differs in circuit symbols. The layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor are denoted by the letters. To keep a straight ...

Need to switch something on or off using a microcontroller? Using a transistor is one of the best ways to do this, but how exactly do you design properly for transistor switching? [Ben Krasnow] put ...

Explains the principles of transistor switching circuits, highlighting their role in electronic computers. It contrasts transistors with vacuum tubes, emphasizing that transistors function as ...

In the early days, PNP bipolar transistors were common, but the bulk of circuits you see today use NPN transistors. As [Aaron Danner] points out, many people think PNP transistors are “backward” but ...

The transistor is probably the most important invention in electronic engineering and the basis for nearly all integrated circuits (ICs). The transistor is a three-terminal electronic device that can ...

Modern circuit design is a “mixed signal” endeavor thanks to the availability of sophisticated process technologies that make available bipolar and CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor), ...

Thermocouples and their leads often have to detect open-circuit or short-circuit faults. However, it is very difficult to distinguish a valid millivolt temperature signal from an open/short-circuited ...